1 Systems Thinking I

Level 3, Topic 1: Systems Thinking (Bare Essentials)

Introduction

Why do well-intentioned solutions sometimes make problems worse? A city builds more highways to reduce traffic, but traffic gets worse as more people drive. A company cuts costs to improve profits, but loses its best employees and profits decline. A person tries to control their anxiety by avoiding stressful situations, but the anxiety grows stronger.

These aren’t just bad luck or poor execution—they’re examples of systems behaving in ways we didn’t anticipate because we weren’t thinking systemically.

Systems thinking is a way of understanding how things influence each other within a whole. Rather than looking at isolated events or individual parts, systems thinking helps you see patterns, connections, feedback loops, and the bigger picture. It’s a mental framework that reveals why things behave the way they do—and how small changes in the right place can create significant improvements.

A system is simply a set of interconnected elements that work together to produce some result or behavior. Your body is a system. Your family is a system. Your workplace, your community, the economy, the climate—all systems. Even your daily habits form a system that produces your overall quality of life.

Systems thinking is foundational to Level 3 because once you understand how to work with groups and communities (Level 2), you need to understand how those groups function as systems—how they maintain themselves, change, grow, and sometimes fail in unexpected ways. This topic provides the lens through which the other Level 3 topics make sense:

• Organizational Intelligence (Level 3, Topic 3) examines how organizations function as thinking systems
• Part-Whole Symbiosis (Level 3, Topic 2) explores the feedback relationship between individuals and collectives as systems
• Planning vs. Emergence (Level 3, Topic 4) looks at how systems can be designed versus how they self-organize
• Community Growth, Social Change, and Systemic Change (Level 3, Topics 5-7) all require understanding how social systems work and how to influence them effectively

Why does this matter for your life? Because most important challenges—whether personal, organizational, or societal—involve systems. Understanding systems thinking helps you:

• See why problems persist despite people’s best efforts to fix them
• Anticipate unintended consequences before implementing solutions
• Find leverage points where small, well-placed efforts create large changes
• Avoid common traps like treating symptoms instead of causes
• Design better solutions that work with system dynamics rather than against them

The encouraging news: systems thinking is a learnable skill, not an innate talent. It’s a shift in perspective that becomes more natural with practice. This topic will introduce you to the core concepts and give you practical tools you can start using immediately to understand and influence the systems in your life.

How It Helps

Understanding and applying systems thinking benefits you across multiple domains of life:

In Personal Growth and Habits:

• Understand why habits persist even when you want to change them—they’re part of reinforcing feedback loops in your daily system
• Design better personal change strategies by identifying what reinforces unwanted behaviors and what could reinforce desired ones
• Recognize patterns in your own behavior rather than seeing each instance as an isolated event
• Anticipate how one life change affects others—understanding that improving sleep affects energy, which affects exercise, which affects mood, which affects sleep (a system, not isolated changes)

In Relationships and Communication:

• See relationship dynamics as patterns rather than collections of isolated incidents (connects to Level 2: Psychology and Communication Skills)
• Break cycles of conflict by understanding the feedback loops that escalate arguments
• Recognize how your actions influence others’ responses, which influence your next actions—a continuous loop, not a one-way street
• Understand family or group dynamics as systems where everyone’s behavior affects everyone else

In Work and Organizations:

• Diagnose workplace problems by looking at structures and processes, not just blaming individuals
• Predict how policy changes will ripple through an organization before implementing them
• Identify why efficiency improvements in one department sometimes create problems elsewhere
• Design workflows and processes that account for how different parts of the organization interact (connects to Level 3: Organizational Intelligence)

In Community and Social Change:

• Understand why social problems resist simple solutions—poverty, homelessness, addiction, and inequality are embedded in complex systems
• Design interventions with better chances of success by finding leverage points in social systems
• Anticipate resistance and unintended consequences when proposing community changes
• See how individual actions and systemic structures interact (connects to Level 3: Part-Whole Symbiosis)
• Recognize when problems require systemic solutions rather than individual behavior change alone

In Environmental and Technological Issues:

• Understand ecological systems and why environmental problems are interconnected
• Evaluate technology’s ripple effects beyond its immediate purpose (connects to Level 2: Technology & Society)
• Recognize resource limitations and delays—why problems often appear suddenly even though they’ve been building for years
• Think about sustainability as maintaining healthy system balance over time (connects to Level 2: Long-term Thinking)

In Problem-Solving and Decision-Making:

• Ask better questions about why problems exist, not just how to fix symptoms
• Consider second-order and third-order effects of your decisions (connects to Level 2: Critical Thinking)
• Recognize when you’re optimizing one part at the expense of the whole (connects to Level 2: Efficiency)
• Identify root causes rather than treating surface symptoms repeatedly

In Learning and Education:

• Understand how knowledge areas connect rather than seeing them as isolated subjects
• Recognize that learning itself is a system with feedback loops between practice, understanding, and motivation
• Apply systems thinking to the Techne System itself—seeing how topics build on each other and how the whole educational framework functions as a learning system

The common thread: Systems thinking gives you a more accurate mental model of how the world actually works. Instead of seeing isolated events and simple cause-and-effect, you see patterns, connections, and feedback. This leads to wiser decisions, more effective interventions, and fewer unpleasant surprises.

Practical Guide

This guide will help you start thinking systemically and applying systems thinking to real situations in your life.

Step 1: Shift Your Perspective

Systems thinking requires a mental shift from how we typically think about problems. Practice these perspective changes:

From Events to Patterns:

• Instead of: “I had another argument with my coworker today.”
• Think: “What pattern of interactions keeps leading to arguments? What triggers the cycle?”

From Linear to Circular:

• Instead of: “A causes B” (one-way causation)
• Think: “A influences B, which influences C, which loops back to influence A” (circular causation)
• Example: Stress → poor sleep → fatigue → more stress → worse sleep (a reinforcing loop)

From Snapshots to Flows:

• Instead of: Looking at a single moment in time
• Think: How did things get this way? What’s accumulating or depleting over time?
• Example: Don’t just ask “Why is morale low today?” Ask “What has been draining morale over time, and what could replenish it?”

From Parts to Wholes:

• Instead of: Analyzing each component separately
• Think: How do the parts interact? What emerges from their interaction that isn’t present in any single part?
• Example: A team’s effectiveness isn’t just the sum of individual skills—it emerges from how those skills interact and combine

From Blame to Understanding:

• Instead of: “Whose fault is this problem?”
• Think: “What structures, incentives, or feedback loops produce this behavior?”
• This doesn’t eliminate personal responsibility, but recognizes that behavior often makes sense within the system people are in (connects to Level 2: Psychology)

Step 2: Learn the Basic Building Blocks

Systems are made of a few fundamental elements that combine in various ways:

Elements: The individual parts or components of a system. In a family system: the individual people. In an organization: departments, roles, policies, resources.

Interconnections: The relationships and flows between elements. How do parts influence each other? What information, resources, or effects flow between them?

Purpose or Function: What the system does or produces, which may be different from what it’s intended to do. Ask: “What is this system actually achieving?” not just “What is it supposed to achieve?”

• Example: A school system might be intended to educate, but if it actually functions to sort and credential students, that’s its effective purpose

Stocks: Accumulations or quantities that can be measured at any point in time. Examples: money in a bank account, water in a reservoir, knowledge in your brain, trust in a relationship, goodwill in a community.

Flows: Rates of change that fill or drain stocks. Examples: income and expenses (affecting money stock), learning and forgetting (affecting knowledge stock), trust-building and trust-breaking actions (affecting relationship stock).

Feedback Loops: Circular chains of cause and effect. There are two main types:

• Reinforcing (Positive) Feedback: Amplifies change in either direction—creates growth or collapse

  • Example: Practice → skill improvement → more enjoyment → more practice → more improvement (virtuous cycle)
  • Example: Debt → interest charges → more debt → more interest (vicious cycle)
  • Note: “Positive” doesn’t mean good—it means self-amplifying

• Balancing (Negative) Feedback: Resists change and seeks stability

  • Example: Room temperature drops → heater turns on → temperature rises → heater turns off (thermostat maintaining balance)
  • Example: Hunger → eating → satiation → stop eating (body maintaining balance)
  • Note: “Negative” doesn’t mean bad—it means self-correcting

Delays: Time lags between cause and effect. Delays often cause problems because we don’t see immediate results and either give up too soon or overshoot by doing too much.

• Example: Exercise doesn’t improve fitness immediately—there’s a delay, so people often quit before seeing results
• Example: Pollution’s health effects may take years to appear, making it hard to connect cause and effect

Step 3: Map a Simple System

Practice systems thinking by mapping a system you’re part of:

Choose a system to examine: Start with something manageable—a personal habit system, a small team you’re on, a recurring problem in your life, or a simple organizational process.

Identify the key elements: What are the main components? Don’t try to include everything—focus on the most important parts.

Draw the connections: How do these elements influence each other? Use arrows to show the direction of influence.

• Example: “Low energy → skip exercise → feel worse → lower energy → skip exercise more”

Find the feedback loops: Are there circular patterns? Which are reinforcing (amplifying)? Which are balancing (stabilizing)?

Look for delays: Where is there a time lag between action and result? This often explains why systems behave unexpectedly.

Identify stocks and flows: What’s accumulating or depleting over time? What fills it up? What drains it?

Ask: What is this system optimized for? What does it actually produce or maintain, regardless of intentions? Systems are perfectly designed to achieve the results they’re currently achieving.

Step 4: Find Leverage Points

Once you understand a system, you can identify leverage points—places where a small change can produce significant effects.

High-leverage interventions often involve:

• Changing feedback loops: Breaking vicious cycles or creating virtuous ones

  • Example: Instead of just “trying harder” to exercise (fighting the system), change the feedback: find a form of exercise you enjoy, creating a reinforcing loop instead of a balancing one

• Adjusting delays: Speeding up helpful feedback or slowing down harmful feedback

  • Example: Getting more frequent feedback on your learning progress helps you adjust course before investing too much time in ineffective strategies

• Changing the system’s goal or purpose: What is the system trying to achieve?

  • Example: Shifting an organization’s primary metric from “hours worked” to “outcomes achieved” changes behavior throughout the system

• Altering information flows: Making important information more visible or accessible

  • Example: Making energy consumption visible in real-time reduces usage more than monthly bills do (connects to Level 3: Organizational Intelligence on perception)

• Changing the rules: The formal and informal rules that govern system behavior

  • Example: Changing how decisions are made in a group affects everything downstream

Low-leverage interventions (often ineffective):

• Treating symptoms without addressing causes
• Adding more resources to a poorly designed system
• Trying harder within existing structures without changing the structures
• Intervening at the wrong point in the feedback loop

Important principle from Level 2: Efficiency—optimizing one part of a system can make the whole system worse. Always consider the system-wide effects, not just local improvements.

Step 5: Anticipate Unintended Consequences

Systems thinking helps you predict side effects and ripple effects before implementing changes:

Ask “And then what?” repeatedly:

• If we do X, what happens?
• And then what happens after that?
• And what else might be affected?
• What might people do in response?

Consider different timescales (from Level 2: Long-term Thinking):

• What are the immediate effects?
• What happens in a few months?
• What about years later?
• Delays mean short-term and long-term effects can be opposite

Look for compensating feedback: Systems often resist change through balancing feedback loops. When you push one way, what pushes back?

• Example: Strict rules to control behavior often trigger creative rule-breaking, making the problem worse

Check for burden-shifting: Does your solution shift the problem elsewhere in the system or to another group?

• Example: Speeding up one department’s work by giving them priority might slow down everyone else

Watch for addiction/dependency: Does your solution create dependency on continued intervention rather than building system capacity?

• Example: Always rescuing someone from consequences prevents them from learning, creating a reinforcing loop of dependency

Step 6: Start Small and Practice

You don’t need to master complex systems analysis to benefit from systems thinking. Start with these simple practices:

In daily life:

• When something goes wrong repeatedly, ask “What pattern am I part of?” instead of “Who’s to blame?”
• Notice feedback loops in your habits and routines
• Pay attention to delays between actions and results
• Ask “What is this system actually optimized for?” when something seems dysfunctional

In groups and organizations:

• Before proposing a solution, map the current system to understand why the problem exists
• When evaluating ideas, ask “What might this change accidentally make worse?”
• Look for reinforcing loops that could amplify small improvements
• Notice where information flows well and where it gets stuck

Build the habit: Systems thinking becomes more natural with practice. Start noticing systems everywhere—in nature, in social interactions, in technology, in your own thinking patterns. The more you practice seeing systems, the more automatically you’ll think this way.

Remember: Systems thinking is a tool for understanding and influence, not an excuse for inaction. Yes, systems are complex, but that doesn’t mean we can’t improve them. It just means we need to be thoughtful about where and how we intervene.

Practice Exercises

These exercises help you understand, apply, and practice systems thinking principles. They’re organized into categories, with options for both solo reflection and partner/group work.

Comprehension Exercises

Solo:

1. Feedback Loop Identification: List three feedback loops in your own life—at least one reinforcing (amplifying) and one balancing (stabilizing). For each, identify: What triggers it? What does it amplify or balance? Is it helpful or harmful to you?

2. Delay Recognition: Think of a situation where you (or someone you know) gave up on something because results didn’t appear quickly enough, or overdid something because results were delayed. Describe the delay and how it affected behavior.

3. Stock and Flow Mapping: Choose one “stock” in your life (energy, money, knowledge in a subject, trust in a relationship, clutter in your home). What are the main “inflows” that increase it? What are the “outflows” that decrease it? Is the stock growing, shrinking, or stable?

Partner/Group:

4. Loop Comparison: Each person shares one feedback loop they identified in Exercise 1. Discuss: Do you notice similar patterns across different contexts? Can you identify the type of loop (reinforcing or balancing) in each other’s examples?

5. System Purpose Discussion: Choose a system everyone is familiar with (a school, a workplace, a social media platform, a government program). Discuss: What is it supposed to do versus what it actually does? If these differ, what in the system’s structure produces the actual behavior?

Reflection Exercises

Solo:

6. Personal Pattern Recognition: Reflect on a recurring problem in your life. Map it as a system: What elements are involved? What feedback loops maintain the problem? Where are the delays? What is being optimized (even if unintentionally)?

7. Perspective Shift: Think of a conflict or frustration you’ve experienced with another person. Try shifting from “they’re the problem” to “what system dynamics might be producing this behavior?” How does this change your understanding? (Connects to Level 2: Psychology on attribution)

8. Unintended Consequences Review: Reflect on a time when a solution you or someone else implemented had unexpected negative side effects. Using systems thinking, can you now see why those consequences occurred? What feedback loops or connections were missed?

Partner/Group:

9. System Stories: Share stories about times when you witnessed systems behaving in surprising or counterintuitive ways (solutions that backfired, small changes with big effects, problems that persisted despite effort). Discuss what systems principles explain each story.

10. Mental Model Evolution: Discuss how systems thinking changes your understanding of a problem you previously thought about differently. What did you used to think caused the problem? What do you think now? How does this change what solutions seem promising?

Application Exercises

Solo:

11. System Mapping Practice: Choose a system you’re currently part of (your household, a team at work, a community group, your daily routine). Create a simple map showing the key elements, connections, and at least two feedback loops. Identify one potential leverage point.

12. Habit System Design: Choose a habit you want to build or break. Map the current system maintaining your behavior. Then design a new system with different feedback loops, information flows, or structures that would make the desired behavior easier and more reinforcing.

13. Consequence Prediction: Think of a change you’re considering in your life (job change, moving, starting a project, ending a relationship, etc.). Use “And then what?” questioning to trace out potential second-order and third-order effects. What ripples might this create?

Partner/Group:

14. Collective System Mapping: If your group is working through this material together, map your own group as a system. What are the key elements? How does information flow? What feedback loops exist? What stocks are growing or depleting (energy, trust, knowledge, momentum)? Identify one leverage point to improve your group’s functioning.

15. Problem Diagnosis Workshop: Choose a shared problem (in your workplace, community, or study group). Work together to map the system producing this problem. Focus on structures and feedback loops, not blame. What maintains the problem? Where might leverage points be?

16. Solution Evaluation: Each person brings a proposed solution to some problem (personal, organizational, or societal). As a group, use systems thinking to evaluate each proposal: What feedback loops would it create? What unintended consequences might occur? What delays should be anticipated? How could the proposal be strengthened?

Discussion Exercises

Partner/Group:

17. Scale and Complexity: Discuss how systems thinking applies at different scales. What’s similar about personal habit systems, small group dynamics, and large institutional systems? What’s different? Does the same systems thinking toolkit work at all scales?

18. Limits of Control: Systems thinking reveals that we often have less control than we think—we’re part of systems, not outside controllers. Discuss: How do you balance accepting system dynamics with maintaining personal agency and responsibility? When does “it’s the system” become an excuse versus a useful insight?

19. Optimization Trade-offs: Discuss examples where optimizing one part of a system made the whole worse (connects to Level 2: Efficiency). Why is this so common? How can you tell when you’re sub-optimizing? What practices help you keep the whole system in view?

20. Systems and Values: Systems thinking is descriptive (how things work) but doesn’t tell us what goals to pursue. Discuss: How do you decide what a system should be optimized for? When different people want the system to achieve different things, how do you navigate that? (Connects to Level 2: Critical Thinking on separating objective from subjective)

21. Emergence and Surprise: Systems often produce emergent properties—characteristics that arise from interactions but aren’t present in any individual part. Discuss examples you’ve seen of emergence (in groups, organizations, communities, nature). What does emergence mean for how we try to design or change systems? (This connects to Level 3: Planning vs. Emergence)

22. Systems Thinking in Techne: Discuss how the Techne System itself embodies systems thinking principles. What feedback loops are built in (or planned)? How do the topics interconnect? What might be the unintended consequences of the program’s design? What leverage points could make it more effective?

Key Sources & Further Reading

This section provides starting points for learning more about systems thinking. Sources range from accessible introductions to more academic works.

Foundational Texts

Books:

• “Thinking in Systems: A Primer” by Donella H. Meadows, edited by Diana Wright (2008)

  • The most accessible and comprehensive introduction to systems thinking
  • Clear explanations of stocks, flows, feedback loops, and leverage points
  • Filled with real-world examples across many domains
  • Essential reading for anyone serious about understanding systems

• “The Fifth Discipline: The Art & Practice of The Learning Organization” by Peter M. Senge (1990)

  • Applies systems thinking to organizational contexts
  • Introduces “systems archetypes”—common patterns that appear across different systems
  • Practical focus on how to use systems thinking in groups and organizations
  • Also relevant to Level 3: Organizational Intelligence

• “Seeing Systems: Unlocking the Mysteries of Organizational Life” by Barry Oshry (2007)

  • Focuses on social systems and organizational dynamics
  • Explores how position in a system shapes perception and behavior
  • Particularly useful for understanding power dynamics and system roles
  • Accessible, story-driven approach

Classic Papers:

• “Leverage Points: Places to Intervene in a System” by Donella H. Meadows (1999)

  • Short, influential essay on where and how to effectively change systems
  • Ranks twelve types of leverage points from least to most effective
  • Freely available online
  • Essential for understanding how to create change in systems

• “The Structure of ‘Unstructured’ Decision Processes” by Henry Mintzberg, Duru Raisinghani, and André Théorêt (1976)

  • Academic paper on how decisions actually happen in organizations (versus how we think they happen)
  • Shows systems thinking applied to decision-making processes
  • Available through academic databases

Accessible Introductions

Books:

• “An Introduction to General Systems Thinking” by Gerald M. Weinberg (1975, revised 2001)

  • Clear, engaging introduction with emphasis on thinking tools
  • Includes exercises and thought experiments
  • Applicable across technical and social domains

• “The Systems Thinker” series and website (thesystemsthinker.com)

  • Short articles applying systems thinking to various problems
  • Tools, case studies, and practical applications
  • Many articles freely available online

Videos and Visual Resources:

• “World Climate” interactive simulation (climateinteractive.org)

  • Hands-on experience with a complex system (climate)
  • Shows delays, feedback loops, and unintended consequences
  • Free, web-based tool

• Systems thinking animations and explainers (search for “systems thinking basics” or “feedback loops explained”)

  • Visual learners may find animated explanations particularly helpful
  • Many quality free resources available on educational platforms

Systems Thinking in Practice

Books:

• “Limits to Growth: The 30-Year Update” by Donella Meadows, Jorgen Randers, and Dennis Meadows (2004)

  • Classic application of systems thinking to global resource use and sustainability
  • Shows how to model complex systems and project future scenarios
  • Controversial but important example of systems analysis at planetary scale
  • Connects to Level 2: Long-term Thinking and Technology & Society

• “Small Arcs of Larger Circles: Framing Through Other Patterns” by Nora Bateson (2016)

  • Systems thinking applied to education, ecology, and social change
  • Emphasizes interconnection and context
  • Poetic, philosophical approach to systemic understanding

• “Reinventing Organizations” by Frederic Laloux (2014)

  • Case studies of organizations designed with systems thinking principles
  • Shows how different organizational structures create different system behaviors
  • Practical examples of alternatives to traditional hierarchies
  • Relevant to Level 3: Organizational Intelligence

Specific Applications

Personal Systems:

• “Atomic Habits” by James Clear (2018)

  • Applies systems thinking to personal habit formation
  • Focus on feedback loops, environment design, and compound effects
  • Very practical and accessible

• “The Power of Habit” by Charles Duhigg (2012)

  • Explores habit loops as systems
  • Examples from personal, organizational, and social contexts
  • Research-based but readable

Social and Environmental Systems:

• “Braiding Sweetgrass” by Robin Wall Kimmerer (2013)

  • Indigenous perspectives on ecological systems
  • Emphasizes reciprocity and interconnection
  • Beautiful writing combining science and traditional knowledge

• “The Death and Life of Great American Cities” by Jane Jacobs (1961)

  • Classic systems thinking applied to urban planning
  • Shows how cities function as complex adaptive systems
  • Influential critique of top-down planning that ignored system dynamics

Technology and Complex Systems:

• “Normal Accidents: Living with High-Risk Technologies” by Charles Perrow (1984)

  • Systems analysis of technological failures
  • Shows how system complexity creates inevitable accidents
  • Important for understanding risk in complex systems

• “How Complex Systems Fail” by Richard I. Cook (1998)

  • Short paper on system failures
  • Accessible introduction to complexity and failure modes
  • Freely available online

Academic and Advanced Resources

For deeper study (Intermediate/Advanced levels):

• System Dynamics modeling tools (Vensim, Stella, or free alternatives)

  • Software for building and simulating system models
  • Hands-on way to explore system behavior
  • Learning curve but powerful for understanding complex dynamics

• Complexity science and emergence:

  • Santa Fe Institute resources and publications
  • Research on how complex systems self-organize
  • Connects to Level 3: Planning vs. Emergence

• Cybernetics and feedback control:

  • Historical foundation of systems thinking
  • More technical but foundational concepts
  • Works by Norbert Wiener, W. Ross Ashby, Gregory Bateson

Case Studies and Examples

Systems Thinking Successes:

• The Montreal Protocol (international cooperation to address ozone depletion)
• Toyota Production System (systems approach to manufacturing)
• Participatory budgeting (systemic approach to democratic resource allocation)
• Permaculture design (ecological systems thinking in agriculture)

Systems Thinking Failures (Learning Opportunities):

• Cobra effect (colonial India’s bounty on cobras led to cobra breeding)
• Soviet nail factory (measuring output by weight led to useless heavy nails)
• Prohibition in the U.S. (banning alcohol created worse problems than it solved)
• Invasive species introductions (solving one problem by creating ecosystem disruption)

Note: Intermediate and Advanced levels will provide more detailed case studies, modeling techniques, and domain-specific applications.

Online Communities and Resources

• Systems thinking forums and communities on Reddit (r/systemsthinking), professional networks, and academic platforms
• Systems Innovation (YouTube channel and website with free courses)
• The Systems Thinker (online publication with articles and tools)
• Complexity Labs (resources on complexity science and systems change)

Connection to Other Techne Topics

Systems thinking connects deeply with many other topics in the Techne System:

• Level 2: Critical Thinking – Systems thinking as a framework for analyzing complex problems
• Level 2: Science – Scientific method applied to understanding system behavior
• Level 2: Long-term Thinking – Understanding delays and long-term consequences
• Level 2: Efficiency – Whole-system optimization versus local optimization
• Level 3: Organizational Intelligence – Organizations as thinking systems
• Level 3: Part-Whole Symbiosis – Feedback between individuals and collectives
• Level 3: Planning vs. Emergence – Designed versus self-organizing systems
• Level 3: All community and change topics – Social systems and how to influence them

For Intermediate & Advanced Study

Topics to explore in greater depth at higher levels include:

• System dynamics modeling and simulation
• Complex adaptive systems and emergence
• Network theory and network effects
• Resilience and system stability
• Systems archetypes and common patterns
• Causal loop diagrams and stock-flow diagrams
• Multi-scale systems and nested hierarchies
• Systems thinking methodologies (soft systems, critical systems, etc.)

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